Author: ChatInsight.online

The Solar System^[d] is the gravitationally bound system of the Sun and the objects that orbit it.^[11] It formed about 4.6 billion years ago when a dense region of a molecular cloud collapsed, forming the Sun and a protoplanetary disc. The Sun is a typical star that maintains a balanced equilibrium by the fusion of hydrogen into helium at its core, releasing this energy from its outer photosphere. Astronomers classify it as a G-type main-sequence star.

The largest objects that orbit the Sun are the eight planets. In order from the Sun, they are four terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars); two gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn); and two ice giants (Uranus and Neptune). All terrestrial planets have solid surfaces. Inversely, all giant planets do not have a definite surface, as they are mainly composed of gases and liquids. Over 99.86% of the Solar System’s mass is in the Sun and nearly 90% of the remaining mass is in Jupiter and Saturn.

There is a strong consensus among astronomers^[e] that the Solar System has at least nine dwarf planets: Ceres, Orcus, Pluto, Haumea, Quaoar, Makemake, Gonggong, Eris, and Sedna. There are a vast number of small Solar System bodies, such as asteroids, comets, centaurs, meteoroids, and interplanetary dust clouds. Some of these bodies are in the asteroid belt (between Mars’s and Jupiter’s orbit) and the Kuiper belt (just outside Neptune’s orbit).^[f] Six planets, seven dwarf planets, and other bodies have orbiting natural satellites, which are commonly called ‘moons’.

The Solar System is constantly flooded by the Sun’s charged particles, the solar wind, forming the heliosphere. Around 75–90 astronomical units from the Sun,^[g] the solar wind is halted, resulting in the heliopause. This is the boundary of the Solar System to interstellar space. The outermost region of the Solar System is the theorized Oort cloud, the source for long-period comets, extending to a radius of 2,000–200,000 AU. The closest star to the Solar System, Proxima Centauri, is 4.25 light-years (269,000 AU) away. Both stars belong to the Milky Way galaxy.

Formation and evolution

Main article: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

Past

The Solar System formed at least 4.568 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a region within a large molecular cloud.^[b] This initial cloud was likely several light-years across and probably birthed several stars.^[14] As is typical of molecular clouds, this one consisted mostly of hydrogen, with some helium, and small amounts of heavier elements fused by previous generations of stars.^[15]

As the pre-solar nebula^[15] collapsed, conservation of angular momentum caused it to rotate faster. The center, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surroundings.^[14] As the contracting nebula spun faster, it began to flatten into a protoplanetary disc with a diameter of roughly 200 AU^[14][16] and a hot, dense protostar at the center.^[17][18] The planets formed by accretion from this disc,^[19] in which dust and gas gravitationally attracted each other, coalescing to form ever larger bodies. Hundreds of protoplanets may have existed in the early Solar System, but they either merged or were destroyed or ejected, leaving the planets, dwarf planets, and leftover minor bodies.^[20][21]

Due to their higher boiling points, only metals and silicates could exist in solid form in the warm inner Solar System close to the Sun (within the frost line). They eventually formed the rocky planets of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Because these refractory materials only comprised a small fraction of the solar nebula, the terrestrial planets could not grow very large.^[20]

The giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid. The ices that formed these planets were more plentiful than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial inner planets, allowing them to grow massive enough to capture large atmospheres of hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements.^[20] Leftover debris that never became planets congregated in regions such as the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, and Oort cloud.^[20]

Within 50 million years, the pressure and density of hydrogen in the center of the protostar became great enough for it to begin thermonuclear fusion.^[22] As helium accumulates at its core, the Sun is growing brighter;^[23] early in its main-sequence life its brightness was 70% that of what it is today.^[24] The temperature, reaction rate, pressure, and density increased until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved: the thermal pressure counterbalancing the force of gravity. At this point, the Sun became a main-sequence star.^[25] Solar wind from the Sun created the heliosphere and swept away the remaining gas and dust from the protoplanetary disc into interstellar space.^[23]

Following the dissipation of the protoplanetary disk, the Nice model proposes that gravitational encounters between planetisimals and the gas giants caused each to migrate into different orbits. This led to dynamical instability of the entire system, which scattered the planetisimals and ultimately placed the gas giants in their current positions. During this period, the grand tack hypothesis suggests that a final inward migration of Jupiter dispersed much of the asteroid belt, leading to the Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner planets.^[26][27]

Present and future

The Solar System remains in a relatively stable, slowly evolving state by following isolated, gravitationally bound orbits around the Sun.^[28] Although the Solar System has been fairly stable for billions of years, it is technically chaotic, and may eventually be disrupted. There is a small chance that another star will pass through the Solar System in the next few billion years. Although this could destabilize the system and eventually lead millions of years later to expulsion of planets, collisions of planets, or planets hitting the Sun, it would most likely leave the Solar System much as it is today.^[29]

The Sun’s main-sequence phase, from beginning to end, will last about 10 billion years for the Sun compared to around two billion years for all other subsequent phases of the Sun’s pre-remnant life combined.^[30] The Solar System will remain roughly as it is known today until the hydrogen in the core of the Sun has been entirely converted to helium, which will occur roughly 5 billion years from now. This will mark the end of the Sun’s main-sequence life. At that time, the core of the Sun will contract with hydrogen fusion occurring along a shell surrounding the inert helium, and the energy output will be greater than at present. The outer layers of the Sun will expand to roughly 260 times its current diameter, and the Sun will become a red giant. Because of its increased surface area, the surface of the Sun will be cooler (2,600 K (4,220 °F) at its coolest) than it is on the main sequence.^[30]

The expanding Sun is expected to vaporize Mercury as well as Venus, and render Earth and Mars uninhabitable (possibly destroying Earth as well).^[31][32] Eventually, the core will be hot enough for helium fusion; the Sun will burn helium for a fraction of the time it burned hydrogen in the core. The Sun is not massive enough to commence the fusion of heavier elements, and nuclear reactions in the core will dwindle. Its outer layers will be ejected into space, leaving behind a dense white dwarf, half the original mass of the Sun but only the size of Earth.^[30] The ejected outer layers may form a planetary nebula, returning some of the material that formed the Sun—but now enriched with heavier elements like carbon—to the interstellar medium.^[33][34]

General characteristics

Astronomers sometimes divide the Solar System structure into separate regions. The inner Solar System includes Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and the bodies in the asteroid belt. The outer Solar System includes Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and the bodies in the Kuiper belt.^[35] Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt, the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune.^[36]

Composition

Further information: List of Solar System objects and List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules

The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a G-type main-sequence star that contains 99.86% of the system’s known mass and dominates it gravitationally.^[37] The Sun’s four largest orbiting bodies, the giant planets, account for 99% of the remaining mass, with Jupiter and Saturn together comprising more than 90%. The remaining objects of the Solar System (including the four terrestrial planets, the dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, and comets) together comprise less than 0.002% of the Solar System’s total mass.^[h]

The Sun is composed of roughly 98% hydrogen and helium,^[41] as are Jupiter and Saturn.^[42][43] A composition gradient exists in the Solar System, created by heat and light pressure from the early Sun; those objects closer to the Sun, which are more affected by heat and light pressure, are composed of elements with high melting points. Objects farther from the Sun are composed largely of materials with lower melting points.^[44] The boundary in the Solar System beyond which those volatile substances could coalesce is known as the frost line, and it lies at roughly five times the Earth’s distance from the Sun.^[5]

Orbits

The planets and other large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth’s orbit, known as the ecliptic. Smaller icy objects such as comets frequently orbit at significantly greater angles to this plane.^[45][46] Most of the planets in the Solar System have secondary systems of their own, being orbited by natural satellites called moons. All of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous rotation, with one face permanently turned toward their parent. The four giant planets have planetary rings, thin discs of tiny particles that orbit them in unison.^[47]

As a result of the formation of the Solar System, planets and most other objects orbit the Sun in the same direction that the Sun is rotating. That is, counter-clockwise, as viewed from above Earth’s north pole.^[48] There are exceptions, such as Halley’s Comet.^[49] Most of the larger moons orbit their planets in prograde direction, matching the direction of planetary rotation; Neptune’s moon Triton is the largest to orbit in the opposite, retrograde manner.^[50] Most larger objects rotate around their own axes in the prograde direction relative to their orbit, though the rotation of Venus is retrograde.^[51]

To a good first approximation, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects around the Sun.^{[52]: 433–437} These laws stipulate that each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus, which causes the body’s distance from the Sun to vary over the course of its year. A body’s closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion, whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion.^[53]: 9-6 With the exception of Mercury, the orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits. Kepler’s laws only account for the influence of the Sun’s gravity upon an orbiting body, not the gravitational pulls of different bodies upon each other. On a human time scale, these perturbations can be accounted for using numerical models,^[53]: 9-6 but the planetary system can change chaotically over billions of years.^[54]

The angular momentum of the Solar System is a measure of the total amount of orbital and rotational momentum possessed by all its moving components.^[55] Although the Sun dominates the system by mass, it accounts for only about 2% of the angular momentum.^[56][57] The planets, dominated by Jupiter, account for most of the rest of the angular momentum due to the combination of their mass, orbit, and distance from the Sun, with a possibly significant contribution from comets.^[56]

Distances and scales

The radius of the Sun is 0.0047 AU (700,000 km; 400,000 mi).^[58] Thus, the Sun occupies 0.00001% (1 part in 10⁷) of the volume of a sphere with a radius the size of Earth’s orbit, whereas Earth’s volume is roughly 1 millionth (10⁻⁶) that of the Sun. Jupiter, the largest planet, is 5.2 AU from the Sun and has a radius of 71,000 km (0.00047 AU; 44,000 mi), whereas the most distant planet, Neptune, is 30 AU from the Sun.^[43][59]

With a few exceptions, the farther a planet or belt is from the Sun, the larger the distance between its orbit and the orbit of the next nearest object to the Sun. For example, Venus is approximately 0.33 AU farther out from the Sun than Mercury, whereas Saturn is 4.3 AU out from Jupiter, and Neptune lies 10.5 AU out from Uranus. Attempts have been made to determine a relationship between these orbital distances, like the Titius–Bode law^[60] and Johannes Kepler’s model based on the Platonic solids,^[61] but ongoing discoveries have invalidated these hypotheses.^[62]

Some Solar System models attempt to convey the relative scales involved in the Solar System in human terms. Some are small in scale (and may be mechanical—called orreries)—whereas others extend across cities or regional areas.^[63] The largest such scale model, the Sweden Solar System, uses the 110-meter (361-foot) Avicii Arena in Stockholm as its substitute Sun, and, following the scale, Jupiter is a 7.5-meter (25-foot) sphere at Stockholm Arlanda Airport, 40 km (25 mi) away, whereas the farthest current object, Sedna, is a 10 cm (4 in) sphere in Luleå, 912 km (567 mi) away.^[64][65] At that scale, the distance to Proxima Centauri would be roughly 8 times further than the Moon is from Earth.

If the Sun–Neptune distance is scaled to 100 metres (330 ft), then the Sun would be about 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter (roughly two-thirds the diameter of a golf ball), the giant planets would be all smaller than about 3 mm (0.12 in), and Earth’s diameter along with that of the other terrestrial planets would be smaller than a flea (0.3 mm or 0.012 in) at this scale.^[66]

Habitability

Main article: Planetary habitability in the Solar System

Comparison of the habitable zones of the Solar System and TRAPPIST-1, an ultracool red dwarf star known to have seven terrestrial planets in stable orbits around the star.

Comparison of the habitable zones for different stellar temperatures, with a sample of known exoplanets plus the Earth, Mars, and Venus. From top to bottom are an F-type main-sequence star, a yellow dwarf (G-type main-sequence star), an orange dwarf (K-type main-sequence star), a typical red dwarf, and an ultra-cool dwarf.

Besides solar energy, the primary characteristic of the Solar System enabling the presence of life is the heliosphere and planetary magnetic fields (for those planets that have them). These magnetic fields partially shield the Solar System from high-energy interstellar particles called cosmic rays. The density of cosmic rays in the interstellar medium and the strength of the Sun’s magnetic field change on very long timescales, so the level of cosmic-ray penetration in the Solar System varies, though by how much is unknown.^[67]

The zone of habitability of the Solar System is conventionally located in the inner Solar System, where planetary surface or atmospheric temperatures admit the possibility of liquid water.^[68] Habitability might be possible in subsurface oceans of various outer Solar System moons.^[69]

Comparison with extrasolar systems

Compared to many extrasolar systems, the Solar System stands out in lacking planets interior to the orbit of Mercury.^[70][71] The known Solar System lacks super-Earths, planets between one and ten times as massive as the Earth,^[70] although the hypothetical Planet Nine, if it does exist, could be a super-Earth orbiting in the edge of the Solar System.^[72]

Uncommonly, it has only small terrestrial and large gas giants; elsewhere planets of intermediate size are typical—both rocky and gas—so there is no “gap” as seen between the size of Earth and of Neptune (with a radius 3.8 times as large). As many of these super-Earths are closer to their respective stars than Mercury is to the Sun, a hypothesis has arisen that all planetary systems start with many close-in planets, and that typically a sequence of their collisions causes consolidation of mass into few larger planets, but in case of the Solar System the collisions caused their destruction and ejection.^[70][73]

The orbits of Solar System planets are nearly circular. Compared to many other systems, they have smaller orbital eccentricity.^[70] Although there are attempts to explain it partly with a bias in the radial-velocity detection method and partly with long interactions of a quite high number of planets, the exact causes remain undetermined.^[70][74]

Sun

Main article: Sun

The Sun is the Solar System’s star and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses),^[75] which comprises 99.86% of all the mass in the Solar System,^[76] produces temperatures and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.^[77] This releases an enormous amount of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light.^[78][79]

Because the Sun fuses hydrogen at its core, it is a main-sequence star. More specifically, it is a G2-type main-sequence star, where the type designation refers to its effective temperature. Hotter main-sequence stars are more luminous but shorter lived. The Sun’s temperature is intermediate between that of the hottest stars and that of the coolest stars. Stars brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare, whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars, known as red dwarfs, make up about 75% of the fusor stars in the Milky Way.^[80]

The Sun is a population I star, having formed in the spiral arms of the Milky Way galaxy. It has a higher abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium (“metals” in astronomical parlance) than the older population II stars in the galactic bulge and halo.^[81] Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were formed in the cores of ancient and exploding stars, so the first generation of stars had to die before the universe could be enriched with these atoms. The oldest stars contain few metals, whereas stars born later have more. This higher metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun’s development of a planetary system because the planets formed from the accretion of “metals”.^[82]

The region of space dominated by the Solar magnetosphere is the heliosphere, which spans much of the Solar System. Along with light, the Sun radiates a continuous stream of charged particles (a plasma) called the solar wind. This stream spreads outwards at speeds from 900,000 kilometres per hour (560,000 mph) to 2,880,000 kilometres per hour (1,790,000 mph),^[83] filling the vacuum between the bodies of the Solar System. The result is a thin, dusty atmosphere, called the interplanetary medium, which extends to at least 100 AU.^[84]

Activity on the Sun’s surface, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections, disturbs the heliosphere, creating space weather and causing geomagnetic storms.^[85] Coronal mass ejections and similar events blow a magnetic field and huge quantities of material from the surface of the Sun. The interaction of this magnetic field and material with Earth’s magnetic field funnels charged particles into Earth’s upper atmosphere, where its interactions create aurorae seen near the magnetic poles.^[86] The largest stable structure within the heliosphere is the heliospheric current sheet, a spiral form created by the actions of the Sun’s rotating magnetic field on the interplanetary medium.^[87][88]

Inner Solar System

The inner Solar System is the region comprising the terrestrial planets and the asteroids.^[89] Composed mainly of silicates and metals,^[90] the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. This region is within the frost line, which is a little less than 5 AU from the Sun.^[45]

Inner planets

Main article: Terrestrial planet

The four terrestrial or inner planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals such as silicates—which form their crusts and mantles—and metals such as iron and nickel which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth, and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features, such as rift valleys and volcanoes.^[91]

• Mercury (0.31–0.59 AU from the Sun)^{[D 6]} is the smallest planet in the Solar System. Its surface is grayish, with an expansive rupes (cliff) system generated from thrust faults and bright ray systems formed by impact event remnants.^[92] The surface has widely varying temperature, with the equatorial regions ranging from −170 °C (−270 °F) at night to 420 °C (790 °F) during sunlight. In the past, Mercury was volcanically active, producing smooth basaltic plains similar to the Moon.^[93] It is likely that Mercury has a silicate crust and a large iron core.^[94][95] Mercury has a very tenuous atmosphere, consisting of solar-wind particles and ejected atoms.^[96] Mercury has no natural satellites.^[97]
• Venus (0.72–0.73 AU)^{[D 6]} has a reflective, whitish atmosphere that is mainly composed of carbon dioxide. At the surface, the atmospheric pressure is ninety times as dense as on Earth’s sea level.^[98] Venus has a surface temperatures over 400 °C (752 °F), mainly due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.^[99] The planet lacks a protective magnetic field to protect against stripping by the solar wind, which suggests that its atmosphere is sustained by volcanic activity.^[100] Its surface displays extensive evidence of volcanic activity with stagnant lid tectonics.^[101] Venus has no natural satellites.^[97]
• Earth (0.98–1.02 AU)^{[D 6]} is the only place in the universe where life and surface liquid water are known to exist.^[102] Earth’s atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, which is the result of the presence of life.^[103][104] The planet has a complex climate and weather system, with conditions differing drastically between climate regions.^[105] The solid surface of Earth is dominated by green vegetation, deserts and white ice sheets.^{[106][107][108]} Earth’s surface is shaped by plate tectonics that formed the continental masses.^[93] Earth’s planetary magnetosphere shields the surface from radiation, limiting atmospheric stripping and maintaining life habitability.^[109]
  • The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite.^[110] Its diameter is one-quarter the size of Earth’s.^[111] Its surface is covered in very fine regolith and dominated by impact craters.^[112][113] Large dark patches on the Moon, maria, are formed from past volcanic activity.^[114] The Moon’s atmosphere is extremely thin, consisting of a partial vacuum with particle densities of under 10⁷ per cm⁻³.^[115]
• Mars (1.38–1.67 AU)^{[D 6]} has a radius about half of that of Earth.^[116] Most of the planet is red due to iron oxide in Martian soil,^[117] and the polar regions are covered in white ice caps made of water and carbon dioxide.^[118] Mars has an atmosphere composed mostly of carbon dioxide, with surface pressure 0.6% of that of Earth, which is sufficient to support some weather phenomena.^[119] During the Mars year (687 Earth days), there are large surface temperature swings on the surface between −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F) to 5.7 °C (42.3 °F). The surface is peppered with volcanoes and rift valleys, and has a rich collection of minerals.^[120][121] Mars has a highly differentiated internal structure, and lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago.^[122][123]Mars has two tiny moons:^[124]
  • Phobos is Mars’s inner moon. It is a small, irregularly shaped object with a mean radius of 11 km (7 mi). Its surface is very unreflective and dominated by impact craters.^{[D 7][125]} In particular, Phobos’s surface has a very large Stickney impact crater that is roughly 4.5 km (2.8 mi) in radius.^[126]
  • Deimos is Mars’s outer moon. Like Phobos, it is irregularly shaped, with a mean radius of 6 km (4 mi) and its surface reflects little light.^{[D 8][D 9]} However, the surface of Deimos is noticeably smoother than Phobos because the regolith partially covers the impact craters.^[127]

Asteroids

Main article: Asteroid

Asteroids except for the largest, Ceres, are classified as small Solar System bodies and are composed mainly of carbonaceous, refractory rocky and metallic minerals, with some ice.^[128][129] They range from a few meters to hundreds of kilometers in size. Many asteroids are divided into asteroid groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Some asteroids have natural satellites that orbit them, that is, asteroids that orbit larger asteroids.^[130]

• Mercury-crossing asteroids are those with perihelia within the orbit of Mercury. At least 362 are known to date, and include the closest objects to the Sun known in the Solar System.^[131] No vulcanoids, asteroids between the orbit of Mercury and the Sun, have been discovered.^[132][133] As of 2024, one asteroid has been discovered to orbit completely within Venus’s orbit, 594913 ꞌAylóꞌchaxnim.^[134]
• Venus-crossing asteroids are those that cross the orbit of Venus. There are 2,809 as of 2015.^[135]
• Near-Earth asteroids have orbits that approach relatively close to Earth’s orbit,^[136] and some of them are potentially hazardous objects because they might collide with Earth in the future.^[137][138] There are over 37.000 known as of 2024.^[139] A number of solar-orbiting meteoroids were large enough to be tracked in space before striking Earth. It is now widely accepted that collisions in the past have had a significant role in shaping the geological and biological history of Earth.^[140]
• Mars-crossing asteroids are those with perhihelia above 1.3 AU which cross the orbit of Mars.^[141] As of 2024, NASA lists 26,182 confirmed Mars-crossing asteroids.^[135]

Asteroid belt

The asteroid belt occupies a torus-shaped region between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun, which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. It is thought to be remnants from the Solar System’s formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational interference of Jupiter.^[142] The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands, possibly millions, of objects over one kilometer in diameter.^[143] Despite this, the total mass of the asteroid belt is unlikely to be more than a thousandth of that of Earth.^[40] The asteroid belt is very sparsely populated; spacecraft routinely pass through without incident.^[144]

Below are the descriptions of the three largest bodies in the asteroid belt. They are all considered to be relatively intact protoplanets, a precursor stage before becoming a fully-formed planet (see List of exceptional asteroids):^{[145][146][147]}

• Ceres (2.55–2.98 AU) is the only dwarf planet in the asteroid belt.^[148] It is the largest object in the belt, with a diameter of 940 km (580 mi).^[149] Its surface contains a mixture of carbon,^[150] frozen water and hydrated minerals.^[151] There are signs of past cryovolcanic activity, where volatile material such as water are erupted onto the surface, as seen in surface bright spots.^[152] Ceres has a very thin water vapor atmosphere, but practically speaking it is indistinguishable from a vacuum.^[153]
• Vesta (2.13–3.41 AU) is the second-largest object in the asteroid belt.^[154] Its fragments survive as the Vesta asteroid family^[155] and numerous HED meteorites found on Earth.^[156] Vesta’s surface, dominated by basaltic and metamorphic material, has a denser composition than Ceres’s.^[157] Its surface is marked by two giant craters: Rheasilvia and Veneneia.^[158]
• Pallas (2.15–2.57 AU) is the third-largest object in the asteroid belt.^[154] It has its own Pallas asteroid family.^[155] Not much is known about Pallas because it has never been visited by a spacecraft,^[159] though its surface is predicted to be composed of silicates.^[160]

Hilda asteroids are in a 3:2 resonance with Jupiter; that is, they go around the Sun three times for every two Jovian orbits.^[161] They lie in three linked clusters between Jupiter and the main asteroid belt.

Trojans are bodies located within another body’s gravitationally stable Lagrange points: L₄, 60° ahead in its orbit, or L₅, 60° behind in its orbit.^[162] Every planet except Mercury and Saturn is known to possess at least 1 trojan.^{[163][164][165]} The Jupiter trojan population is roughly equal to that of the asteroid belt.^[166] After Jupiter, Neptune possesses the most confirmed trojans, at 28.^[167]

Outer Solar System

The outer region of the Solar System is home to the giant planets and their large moons. The centaurs and many short-period comets orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles such as water, ammonia, and methane, than planets of the inner Solar System because their lower temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid, without significant sublimation.^[20]

Outer planets

Main article: Giant planet

The four outer planets, called giant planets or Jovian planets, collectively make up 99% of the mass orbiting the Sun.^[h] All four giant planets have multiple moons and a ring system, although only Saturn’s rings are easily observed from Earth.^[91] Jupiter and Saturn are composed mainly of gases with extremely low melting points, such as hydrogen, helium, and neon,^[168] hence their designation as gas giants.^[169] Uranus and Neptune are ice giants,^[170] meaning they are largely composed of ‘ice’ in the astronomical sense (chemical compounds with melting points of up to a few hundred kelvins^[168] such as water, methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide.^[171]) Icy substances comprise the majority of the satellites of the giant planets and small objects that lie beyond Neptune’s orbit.^[171][172]

• Jupiter (4.95–5.46 AU)^{[D 6]} is the biggest and most massive planet in the Solar System. On its surface, there are orange-brown and white cloud bands moving via the principles of atmospheric circulation, with giant storms swirling on the surface such as the Great Red Spot and white ‘ovals’. Jupiter possesses a strong enough magnetosphere to redirect ionizing radiation and cause auroras on its poles.^[173] As of 2024, Jupiter has 95 confirmed satellites, which can roughly be sorted into three groups:
  • The Amalthea group, consisting of Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea, and Thebe. They orbit substantially closer to Jupiter than other satellites.^[174] Materials from these natural satellites are the source of Jupiter’s faint ring.^[175]
  • The Galilean moons, consisting of Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa. They are the largest moons of Jupiter and exhibit planetary properties.^[176]
  • Irregular satellites, consisting of substantially smaller natural satellites. They have more distant orbits than the other objects.^[177]
• Saturn (9.08–10.12 AU)^{[D 6]} has a distinctive visible ring system orbiting around its equator composed of small ice and rock particles. Like Jupiter, it is mostly made of hydrogen and helium.^[178] At its north and south poles, Saturn has peculiar hexagon-shaped storms larger than the diameter of Earth. Saturn has a magnetosphere capable of producing weak auroras. As of 2024, Saturn has 146 confirmed satellites, grouped into:
  • Ring moonlets and shepherds, which orbit inside or close to Saturn’s rings. A moonlet can only partially clear out dust in its orbit,^[179] while the ring shepherds are able to completely clear out dust, forming visible gaps in the rings.^[180]
  • Inner large satellites Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, and Dione. These satellites orbit within Saturn’s E ring. They are composed mostly of water ice and are believed to have differentiated internal structures.^[181]
  • Trojan moons Calypso and Telesto (trojans of Tethys), and Helene and Polydeuces (trojans of Dione). These small moons share their orbits with Tethys and Dione, leading or trailing either.^[182][183]
  • Outer large satellites Rhea, Titan, Hyperion, and Iapetus.^[181] Titan is the only satellite in the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere.^[184]
  • Irregular satellites, consisting of substantially smaller natural satellites. They have more distant orbits than the other objects. Phoebe is the largest irregular satellite of Saturn.^[185]
• Uranus (18.3–20.1 AU),^{[D 6]} uniquely among the planets, orbits the Sun on its side with an axial tilt >90°. This gives the planet extreme seasonal variation as each pole points alternately toward and then away from the Sun.^[186] Uranus’ outer layer has a muted cyan color, but underneath these clouds are many mysteries about its climate, such as unusually low internal heat and erratic cloud formation. As of 2024, Uranus has 28 confirmed satellites, divided into three groups:
  • Inner satellites, which orbit inside Uranus’ ring system.^[187] They are very close to each other, which suggests that their orbits are chaotic.^[188]
  • Large satellites, consisting of Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel, and Miranda.^[189] Most of them have roughly equal amounts of rock and ice, except Miranda, which is made primarily of ice.^[190]
  • Irregular satellites, having more distant and eccentric orbits than the other objects.^[191]
• Neptune (29.9–30.5 AU)^{[D 6]} is the furthest planet known in the Solar System. Its outer atmosphere has a slightly muted cyan color, with occasional storms on the surface that look like dark spots. Like Uranus, many atmospheric phenomena of Neptune are unexplained, such as the thermosphere‘s abnormally high temperature or the strong tilt (47°) of its magnetosphere. As of 2024, Neptune has 16 confirmed satellites, divided into two groups:
  • Regular satellites, which have circular orbits that lie near Neptune’s equator.^[185]
  • Irregular satellites, which as the name implies, have less regular orbits. One of them, Triton, is Neptune’s largest moon. It is geologically active, with erupting geysers of nitrogen gas, and possesses a thin, cloudy nitrogen atmosphere.^[192][184]

Centaurs

Main article: Centaur

The centaurs are icy, comet-like bodies whose semi-major axes are longer than Jupiter’s and shorter than Neptune’s (between 5.5 and 30 AU). These are former Kuiper belt and scattered disc objects (SDOs) that were gravitationally perturbed closer to the Sun by the outer planets, and are expected to become comets or be ejected out of the Solar System.^[39] While most centaurs are inactive and asteroid-like, some exhibit cometary activity, such as the first centaur discovered, 2060 Chiron, which has been classified as a comet (95P) because it develops a coma just as comets do when they approach the Sun.^[193] The largest known centaur, 10199 Chariklo, has a diameter of about 250 km (160 mi) and is one of the few minor planets possessing a ring system.^[194][195]

Trans-Neptunian region

Beyond the orbit of Neptune lies the area of the “trans-Neptunian region“, with the doughnut-shaped Kuiper belt, home of Pluto and several other dwarf planets, and an overlapping disc of scattered objects, which is tilted toward the plane of the Solar System and reaches much further out than the Kuiper belt. The entire region is still largely unexplored. It appears to consist overwhelmingly of many thousands of small worlds—the largest having a diameter only a fifth that of Earth and a mass far smaller than that of the Moon—composed mainly of rock and ice. This region is sometimes described as the “third zone of the Solar System”, enclosing the inner and the outer Solar System.^[196]

Kuiper belt

Main article: Kuiper belt

The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt, but consisting mainly of objects composed primarily of ice.^[197] It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. It is composed mainly of small Solar System bodies, although the largest few are probably large enough to be dwarf planets.^[198] There are estimated to be over 100,000 Kuiper belt objects with a diameter greater than 50 km (30 mi), but the total mass of the Kuiper belt is thought to be only a tenth or even a hundredth the mass of Earth.^[39] Many Kuiper belt objects have satellites,^[199] and most have orbits that are substantially inclined (~10°) to the plane of the ecliptic.^[200]

The Kuiper belt can be roughly divided into the “classical” belt and the resonant trans-Neptunian objects.^[197] The latter have orbits whose periods are in a simple ratio to that of Neptune: for example, going around the Sun twice for every three times that Neptune does, or once for every two. The classical belt consists of objects having no resonance with Neptune, and extends from roughly 39.4 to 47.7 AU.^[201] Members of the classical Kuiper belt are sometimes called “cubewanos”, after the first of their kind to be discovered, originally designated 1992 QB₁, (and has since been named Albion); they are still in near primordial, low-eccentricity orbits.^[202]

There is strong consensus among astronomers that five members of the Kuiper belt are dwarf planets.^[198][203] Many dwarf planet candidates are being considered, pending further data for verification.^[204]

• Pluto (29.7–49.3 AU) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt. Pluto has a relatively eccentric orbit, inclined 17 degrees to the ecliptic plane. Pluto has a 2:3 resonance with Neptune, meaning that Pluto orbits twice around the Sun for every three Neptunian orbits. Kuiper belt objects whose orbits share this resonance are called plutinos.^[205]Pluto has five moons: Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra.^[206]
  • Charon, the largest of Pluto’s moons, is sometimes described as part of a binary system with Pluto, as the two bodies orbit a barycenter of gravity above their surfaces (i.e. they appear to “orbit each other”).
• Orcus (30.3–48.1 AU), is in the same 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune as Pluto, and is the largest such object after Pluto itself.^[207] Its eccentricity and inclination are similar to Pluto’s, but its perihelion lies about 120° from that of Pluto. Thus, the phase of Orcus’s orbit is opposite to Pluto’s: Orcus is at aphelion (most recently in 2019) around when Pluto is at perihelion (most recently in 1989) and vice versa.^[208] For this reason, it has been called the anti-Pluto.^[209][210] It has one known moon, Vanth.^[211]
• Haumea (34.6–51.6 AU) was discovered in 2005.^[212] It is in a temporary 7:12 orbital resonance with Neptune.^[207] Haumea possesses a ring system, two known moons named Hiʻiaka and Namaka, and rotates so quickly (once every 3.9 hours) that it is stretched into an ellipsoid. It is part of a collisional family of Kuiper belt objects that share similar orbits, which suggests a giant impact on Haumea ejected fragments into space billions of years ago.^[213]
• Makemake (38.1–52.8 AU), although smaller than Pluto, is the largest known object in the classical Kuiper belt (that is, a Kuiper belt object not in a confirmed resonance with Neptune). Makemake is the brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto. Discovered in 2005, it was officially named in 2009.^[214] Its orbit is far more inclined than Pluto’s, at 29°.^[215] It has one known moon, S/2015 (136472) 1.^[216]
• Quaoar (41.9–45.5 AU) is the second-largest known object in the classical Kuiper belt, after Makemake. Its orbit is significantly less eccentric and inclined than those of Makemake or Haumea.^[207] It possesses a ring system and one known moon, Weywot.^[217]

Scattered disc

Main article: Scattered disc

The scattered disc, which overlaps the Kuiper belt but extends out to near 500 AU, is thought to be the source of short-period comets. Scattered-disc objects are believed to have been perturbed into erratic orbits by the gravitational influence of Neptune’s early outward migration. Most scattered disc objects have perihelia within the Kuiper belt but aphelia far beyond it (some more than 150 AU from the Sun). SDOs’ orbits can be inclined up to 46.8° from the ecliptic plane.^[218] Some astronomers consider the scattered disc to be merely another region of the Kuiper belt and describe scattered-disc objects as “scattered Kuiper belt objects”.^[219] Some astronomers classify centaurs as inward-scattered Kuiper belt objects along with the outward-scattered residents of the scattered disc.^[220]

Currently, there is strong consensus among astronomers that two of the bodies in the scattered disc are dwarf planets:

• Eris (38.3–97.5 AU) is the largest known scattered disc object and the most massive known dwarf planet. Eris’s discovery contributed to a debate about the definition of a planet because it is 25% more massive than Pluto^[221] and about the same diameter. It has one known moon, Dysnomia. Like Pluto, its orbit is highly eccentric, with a perihelion of 38.2 AU (roughly Pluto’s distance from the Sun) and an aphelion of 97.6 AU, and steeply inclined to the ecliptic plane at an angle of 44°.^[222]
• Gonggong (33.8–101.2 AU) is a dwarf planet in a comparable orbit to Eris, except that it is in a 3:10 resonance with Neptune.^{[D 10]} It has one known moon, Xiangliu.^[223]

Extreme trans-Neptunian objects

Main article: Extreme trans-Neptunian object

Some objects in the Solar System have a very large orbit, and therefore are much less affected by the known giant planets than other minor planet populations. These bodies are called extreme trans-Neptunian objects, or ETNOs for short.^[224] Generally, ETNOs’ semi-major axes are at least 150–250 AU wide.^[224][225] For example, 541132 Leleākūhonua orbits the Sun once every ~32,000 years, with a distance of 65–2000 AU from the Sun.^{[D 11]}

This population is divided into three subgroups by astronomers. The scattered ETNOs have perihelia around 38–45 AU and an exceptionally high eccentricity of more than 0.85. As with the regular scattered disc objects, they were likely formed as result of gravitational scattering by Neptune and still interact with the giant planets. The detached ETNOs, with perihelia approximately between 40–45 and 50–60 AU, are less affected by Neptune than the scattered ETNOs, but are still relatively close to Neptune. The sednoids or inner Oort cloud objects, with perihelia beyond 50–60 AU, are too far from Neptune to be strongly influenced by it.^[224]

Currently, there is one ETNO that is classified as a dwarf planet:

• Sedna (76.2–937 AU) was the first extreme trans-Neptunian object to be discovered. It is a large, reddish object, and it takes ~11,400 years for Sedna to complete one orbit. Mike Brown, who discovered the object in 2003, asserts that it cannot be part of the scattered disc or the Kuiper belt because its perihelion is too distant to have been affected by Neptune’s migration.^[226] The sednoid population is named after Sedna.^[224]

Edge of the heliosphere

The Sun’s stellar-wind bubble, the heliosphere, a region of space dominated by the Sun, has its boundary at the termination shock. Based on the Sun’s peculiar motion relative to the local standard of rest, this boundary is roughly 80–100 AU from the Sun upwind of the interstellar medium and roughly 200 AU from the Sun downwind.^[227] Here the solar wind collides with the interstellar medium^[228] and dramatically slows, condenses and becomes more turbulent, forming a great oval structure known as the heliosheath.^[227]

The heliosheath has been theorized to look and behave very much like a comet’s tail, extending outward for a further 40 AU on the upwind side but tailing many times that distance downwind to possibly several thousands of AU.^[229][230] Evidence from the Cassini and Interstellar Boundary Explorer spacecraft has suggested that it is forced into a bubble shape by the constraining action of the interstellar magnetic field,^[231][232] but the actual shape remains unknown.^[233]

The shape and form of the outer edge of the heliosphere is likely affected by the fluid dynamics of interactions with the interstellar medium as well as solar magnetic fields prevailing to the south, e.g. it is bluntly shaped with the northern hemisphere extending 9 AU farther than the southern hemisphere.^[227] The heliopause is considered the beginning of the interstellar medium.^[84] Beyond the heliopause, at around 230 AU, lies the bow shock: a plasma “wake” left by the Sun as it travels through the Milky Way.^[234] Large objects outside the heliopause remain gravitationally bound to the Sun, but the flow of matter in the interstellar medium homogenizes the distribution of micro-scale objects.^[84]

Miscellaneous populations

Comets

Main article: Comet

Comets are small Solar System bodies, typically only a few kilometers across, composed largely of volatile ices. They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto. When a comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye.^[235]

Short-period comets have orbits lasting less than two hundred years. Long-period comets have orbits lasting thousands of years. Short-period comets are thought to originate in the Kuiper belt, whereas long-period comets, such as Hale–Bopp, are thought to originate in the Oort cloud. Many comet groups, such as the Kreutz sungrazers, formed from the breakup of a single parent.^[236] Some comets with hyperbolic orbits may originate outside the Solar System, but determining their precise orbits is difficult.^[237] Old comets whose volatiles have mostly been driven out by solar warming are often categorized as asteroids.^[238]

Meteoroids, meteors and dust

Main articles: Meteoroid, Interplanetary dust cloud, and Cosmic dust

Solid objects smaller than one meter are usually called meteoroids and micrometeoroids (grain-sized), with the exact division between the two categories being debated over the years.^[239] By 2017, the IAU designated any solid object having a diameter between ~30 micrometers and 1 meter as meteoroids, and depreciated the micrometeoroid categorization, instead terms smaller particles simply as ‘dust particles’.^[240]

Some meteoroids formed via disintegration of comets and asteroids, while a few formed via impact debris ejected from planetary bodies. Most meteoroids are made of silicates and heavier metals like nickel and iron.^[241] When passing through the Solar System, comets produce a trail of meteoroids; it is hypothesized that this is caused either by vaporization of the comet’s material or by simple breakup of dormant comets. When crossing an atmosphere, these meteoroids will produce bright streaks in the sky due to atmospheric entry, called meteors. If a stream of meteoroids enter the atmosphere on parallel trajectories, the meteors will seemingly ‘radiate’ from a point in the sky, hence the phenomenon’s name: meteor shower.^[242]

The inner Solar System is home to the zodiacal dust cloud, which is visible as the hazy zodiacal light in dark, unpolluted skies. It may be generated by collisions within the asteroid belt brought on by gravitational interactions with the planets; a more recent proposed origin is materials from planet Mars.^[243] The outer Solar System hosts a cosmic dust cloud. It extends from about 10 AU to about 40 AU, and was probably created by collisions within the Kuiper belt.^[244][245]

Boundary region and uncertainties

See also: Planets beyond Neptune, Planet Nine, and List of Solar System objects by greatest aphelion

Much of the Solar System is still unknown. Regions beyond thousands of AU away are still virtually unmapped and learning about this region of space is difficult. Study in this region depends upon inferences from those few objects whose orbits happen to be perturbed such that they fall closer to the Sun, and even then, detecting these objects has often been possible only when they happened to become bright enough to register as comets.^[246] Many objects may yet be discovered in the Solar System’s uncharted regions.^[247]

The Oort cloud is a theorized spherical shell of up to a trillion icy objects that is thought to be the source for all long-period comets.^[248][249] No direct observation of the Oort cloud is possible with present imaging technology.^[250] It is theorized to surround the Solar System at roughly 50,000 AU (~0.9 ly) from the Sun and possibly to as far as 100,000 AU (~1.8 ly). The Oort cloud is thought to be composed of comets that were ejected from the inner Solar System by gravitational interactions with the outer planets. Oort cloud objects move very slowly, and can be perturbed by infrequent events, such as collisions, the gravitational effects of a passing star, or the galactic tide, the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way.^[248][249]

As of the 2020s, a few astronomers have hypothesized that Planet Nine (a planet beyond Neptune) might exist, based on statistical variance in the orbit of extreme trans-Neptunian objects.^[251] Their closest approaches to the Sun are mostly clustered around one sector and their orbits are similarly tilted, suggesting that a large planet might be influencing their orbit over millions of years.^{[252][253][254]} However, some astronomers said that this observation might be credited to observational biases or just sheer coincidence.^[255] An alternative hypothesis has a close flyby of another star disrupting the outer Solar System.^[256]

The Sun’s gravitational field is estimated to dominate the gravitational forces of surrounding stars out to about two light-years (125,000 AU). Lower estimates for the radius of the Oort cloud, by contrast, do not place it farther than 50,000 AU.^[257] Most of the mass is orbiting in the region between 3,000 and 100,000 AU.^[258] The furthest known objects, such as Comet West, have aphelia around 70,000 AU from the Sun.^[259] The Sun’s Hill sphere with respect to the galactic nucleus, the effective range of its gravitational influence, is thought to extend up to a thousand times farther and encompasses the hypothetical Oort cloud.^[260] It was calculated by G. A. Chebotarev to be 230,000 AU.^[7]

Celestial neighborhood

Main articles: List of nearest stars, List of nearest exoplanets, and List of nearby stellar associations and moving groups

Within 10 light-years of the Sun there are relatively few stars, the closest being the triple star system Alpha Centauri, which is about 4.4 light-years away and may be in the Local Bubble’s G-Cloud.^[262] Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun-like stars, whereas the closest star to the Sun, the small red dwarf Proxima Centauri, orbits the pair at a distance of 0.2 light-years. In 2016, a potentially habitable exoplanet was found to be orbiting Proxima Centauri, called Proxima Centauri b, the closest confirmed exoplanet to the Sun.^[263]

The Solar System is surrounded by the Local Interstellar Cloud, although it is not clear if it is embedded in the Local Interstellar Cloud or if it lies just outside the cloud’s edge.^[264] Multiple other interstellar clouds exist in the region within 300 light-years of the Sun, known as the Local Bubble.^[264] The latter feature is an hourglass-shaped cavity or superbubble in the interstellar medium roughly 300 light-years across. The bubble is suffused with high-temperature plasma, suggesting that it may be the product of several recent supernovae.^[265]

The Local Bubble is a small superbubble compared to the neighboring wider Radcliffe Wave and Split linear structures (formerly Gould Belt), each of which are some thousands of light-years in length.^[266] All these structures are part of the Orion Arm, which contains most of the stars in the Milky Way that are visible to the unaided eye.^[267]

Groups of stars form together in star clusters, before dissolving into co-moving associations. A prominent grouping that is visible to the naked eye is the Ursa Major moving group, which is around 80 light-years away within the Local Bubble. The nearest star cluster is Hyades, which lies at the edge of the Local Bubble. The closest star-forming regions are the Corona Australis Molecular Cloud, the Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex and the Taurus molecular cloud; the latter lies just beyond the Local Bubble and is part of the Radcliffe wave.^[268]

Stellar flybys that pass within 0.8 light-years of the Sun occur roughly once every 100,000 years. The closest well-measured approach was Scholz’s Star, which approached to ~50,000 AU of the Sun some ~70 thousands years ago, likely passing through the outer Oort cloud.^[269] There is a 1% chance every billion years that a star will pass within 100 AU of the Sun, potentially disrupting the Solar System.^[270]

Galactic position

See also: Location of Earth, Galactic year, and Orbit of the Sun

The Solar System is located in the Milky Way, a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter of about 100,000 light-years containing more than 100 billion stars.^[271] The Sun is part of one of the Milky Way’s outer spiral arms, known as the Orion–Cygnus Arm or Local Spur.^[272][273] It is a member of the thin disk population of stars orbiting close to the galactic plane.^[274]

Its speed around the center of the Milky Way is about 220 km/s, so that it completes one revolution every 240 million years.^[271] This revolution is known as the Solar System’s galactic year.^[275] The solar apex, the direction of the Sun’s path through interstellar space, is near the constellation Hercules in the direction of the current location of the bright star Vega.^[276] The plane of the ecliptic lies at an angle of about 60° to the galactic plane.^[c]

The Sun follows a nearly circular orbit around the Galactic Center (where the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* resides) at a distance of 26,660 light-years,^[278] orbiting at roughly the same speed as that of the spiral arms.^[279] If it orbited close to the center, gravitational tugs from nearby stars could perturb bodies in the Oort cloud and send many comets into the inner Solar System, producing collisions with potentially catastrophic implications for life on Earth. In this scenario, the intense radiation of the Galactic Center could interfere with the development of complex life.^[279]

The Solar System’s location in the Milky Way is a factor in the evolutionary history of life on Earth. Spiral arms are home to a far larger concentration of supernovae, gravitational instabilities, and radiation that could disrupt the Solar System, but since Earth stays in the Local Spur and therefore does not pass frequently through spiral arms, this has given Earth long periods of stability for life to evolve.^[279] However, according to the controversial Shiva hypothesis, the changing position of the Solar System relative to other parts of the Milky Way could explain periodic extinction events on Earth.^[280][281]

Discovery and exploration

Main article: Discovery and exploration of the Solar System

Humanity’s knowledge of the Solar System has grown incrementally over the centuries. Up to the Late Middle Ages–Renaissance, astronomers from Europe to India believed Earth to be stationary at the center of the universe^[282] and categorically different from the divine or ethereal objects that moved through the sky. Although the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos had speculated on a heliocentric reordering of the cosmos, Nicolaus Copernicus was the first person known to have developed a mathematically predictive heliocentric system.^[283][284]

Heliocentrism did not triumph immediately over geocentrism, but the work of Copernicus had its champions, notably Johannes Kepler. Using a heliocentric model that improved upon Copernicus by allowing orbits to be elliptical, and the precise observational data of Tycho Brahe, Kepler produced the Rudolphine Tables, which enabled accurate computations of the positions of the then-known planets. Pierre Gassendi used them to predict a transit of Mercury in 1631, and Jeremiah Horrocks did the same for a transit of Venus in 1639. This provided a strong vindication of heliocentrism and Kepler’s elliptical orbits.^[285][286]

In the 17th century, Galileo publicized the use of the telescope in astronomy; he and Simon Marius independently discovered that Jupiter had four satellites in orbit around it.^[287] Christiaan Huygens followed on from these observations by discovering Saturn’s moon Titan and the shape of the rings of Saturn.^[288] In 1677, Edmond Halley observed a transit of Mercury across the Sun, leading him to realize that observations of the solar parallax of a planet (more ideally using the transit of Venus) could be used to trigonometrically determine the distances between Earth, Venus, and the Sun.^[289] Halley’s friend Isaac Newton, in his magisterial Principia Mathematica of 1687, demonstrated that celestial bodies are not quintessentially different from Earthly ones: the same laws of motion and of gravity apply on Earth and in the skies.^[52]: 142

The term “Solar System” entered the English language by 1704, when John Locke used it to refer to the Sun, planets, and comets.^[290] In 1705, Halley realized that repeated sightings of a comet were of the same object, returning regularly once every 75–76 years. This was the first evidence that anything other than the planets repeatedly orbited the Sun,^[291] though Seneca had theorized this about comets in the 1st century.^[292] Careful observations of the 1769 transit of Venus allowed astronomers to calculate the average Earth–Sun distance as 93,726,900 miles (150,838,800 km), only 0.8% greater than the modern value.^[293]

Uranus, having occasionally been observed since 1690 and possibly from antiquity, was recognized to be a planet orbiting beyond Saturn by 1783.^[294] In 1838, Friedrich Bessel successfully measured a stellar parallax, an apparent shift in the position of a star created by Earth’s motion around the Sun, providing the first direct, experimental proof of heliocentrism.^[295] Neptune was identified as a planet some years later, in 1846, thanks to its gravitational pull causing a slight but detectable variation in the orbit of Uranus.^[296] Mercury’s orbital anomaly observations led to searches for Vulcan, a planet interior of Mercury, but these attempts were quashed with Albert Einstein‘s theory of general relativity in 1915.^[297]

In the 20th century, humans began their space exploration around the Solar System, starting with placing telescopes in space since the 1960s.^[298] By 1989, all eight planets have been visited by space probes.^[299] Probes have returned samples from comets^[300] and asteroids,^[301] as well as flown through the Sun’s corona^[302] and visited two dwarf planets (Pluto and Ceres).^[303][304] To save on fuel, some space missions make use of gravity assist maneuvers, such as the two Voyager probes accelerating when flying by planets in the outer Solar System^[305] and the Parker Solar Probe decelerating closer towards the Sun after its flyby of Venus.^[306]

Humans have landed on the Moon during the Apollo program in the 1960s and 1970s^[307] and will return to the Moon in the 2020s with the Artemis program.^[308] Discoveries in the 20th and 21st century has prompted the redefinition of the term planet in 2006, hence the demotion of Pluto to a dwarf planet,^[309] and further interest in trans-Neptunian objects.^[310]

A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby obscuring the view of the Sun from a small part of Earth, totally or partially. Such an alignment occurs approximately every six months, during the eclipse season in its new moon phase, when the Moon’s orbital plane is closest to the plane of Earth’s orbit.^[1] In a total eclipse, the disk of the Sun is fully obscured by the Moon. In partial and annular eclipses, only part of the Sun is obscured. Unlike a lunar eclipse, which may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of Earth, a solar eclipse can only be viewed from a relatively small area of the world. As such, although total solar eclipses occur somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average, they recur at any given place only once every 360 to 410 years.

If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit and in the same orbital plane as Earth, there would be total solar eclipses once a month, at every new moon. Instead, because the Moon’s orbit is tilted at about 5 degrees to Earth’s orbit, its shadow usually misses Earth. Solar (and lunar) eclipses therefore happen only during eclipse seasons, resulting in at least two, and up to five, solar eclipses each year, no more than two of which can be total.^[2][3] Total eclipses are rarer because they require a more precise alignment between the centers of the Sun and Moon, and because the Moon’s apparent size in the sky is sometimes too small to fully cover the Sun.

An eclipse is a natural phenomenon. In some ancient and modern cultures, solar eclipses were attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens. Astronomers’ predictions of eclipses began in China as early as the 4th century BC; eclipses hundreds of years into the future may now be predicted with high accuracy.

Looking directly at the Sun can lead to permanent eye damage, so special eye protection or indirect viewing techniques are used when viewing a solar eclipse. Only the total phase of a total solar eclipse is safe to view without protection. Enthusiasts known as eclipse chasers or umbraphiles travel to remote locations to see solar eclipses.^[4][5]

Types

The Sun’s distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon’s distance, and the Sun’s diameter is about 400 times the Moon’s diameter. Because these ratios are approximately the same, the Sun and the Moon as seen from Earth appear to be approximately the same size: about 0.5 degree of arc in angular measure.^[6]

The Moon’s orbit around Earth is slightly elliptical, as is Earth’s orbit around the Sun. The apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon therefore vary.^[7] The magnitude of an eclipse is the ratio of the apparent size of the Moon to the apparent size of the Sun during an eclipse. An eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its closest distance to Earth (i.e., near its perigee) can be a total eclipse because the Moon will appear to be large enough to completely cover the Sun’s bright disk or photosphere; a total eclipse has a magnitude greater than or equal to 1.000. Conversely, an eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its farthest distance from Earth (i.e., near its apogee) can be only an annular eclipse because the Moon will appear to be slightly smaller than the Sun; the magnitude of an annular eclipse is less than 1.^[8]

Because Earth’s orbit around the Sun is also elliptical, Earth’s distance from the Sun similarly varies throughout the year. This affects the apparent size of the Sun in the same way, but not as much as does the Moon’s varying distance from Earth.^[6] When Earth approaches its farthest distance from the Sun in early July, a total eclipse is somewhat more likely, whereas conditions favour an annular eclipse when Earth approaches its closest distance to the Sun in early January.^[9]

There are three main types of solar eclipses:^[10]

Total eclipse

A total eclipse occurs on average every 18 months^[11] when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely obscures the bright light of the Sun, allowing the much fainter solar corona to be visible. During an eclipse, totality occurs only along a narrow track on the surface of Earth.^[12] This narrow track is called the path of totality.^[13]

Annular eclipse

An annular eclipse, like a total eclipse, occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line with Earth. During an annular eclipse, however, the apparent size of the Moon is not large enough to completely block out the Sun.^[6] Totality thus does not occur; the Sun instead appears as a very bright ring, or annulus, surrounding the dark disk of the Moon.^[6] Annular eclipses occur once every one or two years, not annually.^[11][14] The term derives from the Latin root word anulus, meaning “ring”, rather than annus, for “year”.^[14]

Partial eclipse

A partial eclipse occurs about twice a year,^[11] when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line with Earth and the Moon only partially obscures the Sun. This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of Earth outside of the track of an annular or total eclipse. However, some eclipses can be seen only as a partial eclipse, because the umbra passes above Earth’s polar regions and never intersects Earth’s surface.^[6] Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable in terms of the Sun’s brightness, as it takes well over 90% coverage to notice any darkening at all. Even at 99%, it would be no darker than civil twilight.^[15]

Terminology

Hybrid eclipse

A hybrid eclipse (also called annular/total eclipse) shifts between a total and annular eclipse. At certain points on the surface of Earth, it appears as a total eclipse, whereas at other points it appears as annular. Hybrid eclipses are comparatively rare.^[6]

A hybrid eclipse occurs when the magnitude of an eclipse changes during the event from less to greater than one, so the eclipse appears to be total at locations nearer the midpoint, and annular at other locations nearer the beginning and end, since the sides of Earth are slightly further away from the Moon. These eclipses are extremely narrow in their path width and relatively short in their duration at any point compared with fully total eclipses; the 2023 April 20 hybrid eclipse‘s totality is over a minute in duration at various points along the path of totality. Like a focal point, the width and duration of totality and annularity are near zero at the points where the changes between the two occur.^[16]

Central eclipse

Each icon shows the view from the centre of its black spot, representing the Moon (not to scale)

Diamond ring effect at third contact—the end of totality—with visible prominences (August 21, 2017)

Central eclipse is often used as a generic term for a total, annular, or hybrid eclipse.^[17] This is, however, not completely correct: the definition of a central eclipse is an eclipse during which the central line of the umbra touches Earth’s surface. It is possible, though extremely rare, that part of the umbra intersects with Earth (thus creating an annular or total eclipse), but not its central line. This is then called a non-central total or annular eclipse.^[17] Gamma is a measure of how centrally the shadow strikes. The last (umbral yet) non-central solar eclipse was on April 29, 2014. This was an annular eclipse. The next non-central total solar eclipse will be on April 9, 2043.^[18]

Eclipse phases

The visual phases observed during a total eclipse are called:^[19]

• First contact—when the Moon’s limb (edge) is exactly tangential to the Sun’s limb.
• Second contact—starting with Baily’s Beads (caused by light shining through valleys on the Moon’s surface) and the diamond ring effect. Almost the entire disk is covered.
• Totality—the Moon obscures the entire disk of the Sun and only the solar corona is visible.
• Third contact—when the first bright light becomes visible and the Moon’s shadow is moving away from the observer. Again a diamond ring may be observed.
• Fourth contact—when the trailing edge of the Moon ceases to overlap with the solar disk and the eclipse ends.

Predictions

Geometry

The diagrams to the right show the alignment of the Sun, Moon, and Earth during a solar eclipse. The dark gray region between the Moon and Earth is the umbra, where the Sun is completely obscured by the Moon. The small area where the umbra touches Earth’s surface is where a total eclipse can be seen. The larger light gray area is the penumbra, in which a partial eclipse can be seen. An observer in the antumbra, the area of shadow beyond the umbra, will see an annular eclipse.^[20]

The Moon’s orbit around Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic). Because of this, at the time of a new moon, the Moon will usually pass to the north or south of the Sun. A solar eclipse can occur only when a new moon occurs close to one of the points (known as nodes) where the Moon’s orbit crosses the ecliptic.^[21]

As noted above, the Moon’s orbit is also elliptical. The Moon’s distance from Earth varies by up to about 5.9% from its average value. Therefore, the Moon’s apparent size varies with its distance from Earth, and it is this effect that leads to the difference between total and annular eclipses. The distance of Earth from the Sun also varies during the year, but this is a smaller effect (by up to about 0.85% from its average value). On average, the Moon appears to be slightly (2.1%) smaller than the Sun as seen from Earth, so the majority (about 60%) of central eclipses are annular. It is only when the Moon is closer to Earth than average (near its perigee) that a total eclipse occurs.^[22][23]

	Moon		Sun
	At perigee (nearest)	At apogee (farthest)	At perihelion (nearest)	At aphelion (farthest)
Mean radius	1737.10 km (1079.38 mi)		696000 km (432000 mi)
Distance	363104 km (225622 mi)	405696 km (252088 mi)	147098070 km (91402500 mi)	152097700 km (94509100 mi)
Angular diameter[24]	33′ 30″ (0.5583°)	29′ 26″ (0.4905°)	32′ 42″ (0.5450°)	31′ 36″ (0.5267°)
Apparent size to scale
Order by decreasing apparent size	1st	4th	2nd	3rd

The Moon orbits Earth in approximately 27.3 days, relative to a fixed frame of reference. This is known as the sidereal month. However, during one sidereal month, Earth has revolved part way around the Sun, making the average time between one new moon and the next longer than the sidereal month: it is approximately 29.5 days. This is known as the synodic month and corresponds to what is commonly called the lunar month.^[21]

The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its ascending node, and vice versa at its descending node.^[21] However, the nodes of the Moon’s orbit are gradually moving in a retrograde motion, due to the action of the Sun’s gravity on the Moon’s motion, and they make a complete circuit every 18.6 years. This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month. This period is called the nodical or draconic month.^[25]

Finally, the Moon’s perigee is moving forwards or precessing in its orbit and makes a complete circuit in 8.85 years. The time between one perigee and the next is slightly longer than the sidereal month and known as the anomalistic month.^[26]

The Moon’s orbit intersects with the ecliptic at the two nodes that are 180 degrees apart. Therefore, the new moon occurs close to the nodes at two periods of the year approximately six months (173.3 days) apart, known as eclipse seasons, and there will always be at least one solar eclipse during these periods. Sometimes the new moon occurs close enough to a node during two consecutive months to eclipse the Sun on both occasions in two partial eclipses. This means that, in any given year, there will always be at least two solar eclipses, and there can be as many as five.^[27]

Eclipses can occur only when the Sun is within about 15 to 18 degrees of a node, (10 to 12 degrees for central eclipses). This is referred to as an eclipse limit, and is given in ranges because the apparent sizes and speeds of the Sun and Moon vary throughout the year. In the time it takes for the Moon to return to a node (draconic month), the apparent position of the Sun has moved about 29 degrees, relative to the nodes.^[2] Since the eclipse limit creates a window of opportunity of up to 36 degrees (24 degrees for central eclipses), it is possible for partial eclipses (or rarely a partial and a central eclipse) to occur in consecutive months.^[28][29]

Path

During a central eclipse, the Moon’s umbra (or antumbra, in the case of an annular eclipse) moves rapidly from west to east across Earth. Earth is also rotating from west to east, at about 28 km/min at the Equator, but as the Moon is moving in the same direction as Earth’s rotation at about 61 km/min, the umbra almost always appears to move in a roughly west–east direction across a map of Earth at the speed of the Moon’s orbital velocity minus Earth’s rotational velocity.^[31]

The width of the track of a central eclipse varies according to the relative apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon. In the most favourable circumstances, when a total eclipse occurs very close to perigee, the track can be up to 267 km (166 mi) wide and the duration of totality may be over 7 minutes.^[32] Outside of the central track, a partial eclipse is seen over a much larger area of Earth. Typically, the umbra is 100–160 km wide, while the penumbral diameter is in excess of 6400 km.^[33]

Besselian elements are used to predict whether an eclipse will be partial, annular, or total (or annular/total), and what the eclipse circumstances will be at any given location.^{[34]: Chapter 11}

Calculations with Besselian elements can determine the exact shape of the umbra’s shadow on Earth’s surface. But at what longitudes on Earth’s surface the shadow will fall, is a function of Earth’s rotation, and on how much that rotation has slowed down over time. A number called ΔT is used in eclipse prediction to take this slowing into account. As Earth slows, ΔT increases. ΔT for dates in the future can only be roughly estimated because Earth’s rotation is slowing irregularly. This means that, although it is possible to predict that there will be a total eclipse on a certain date in the far future, it is not possible to predict in the far future exactly at what longitudes that eclipse will be total. Historical records of eclipses allow estimates of past values of ΔT and so of Earth’s rotation. ^{[34]: Equation 11.132}

Duration

The following factors determine the duration of a total solar eclipse (in order of decreasing importance):^[35][36]

1. The Moon being almost exactly at perigee (making its angular diameter as large as possible).
2. Earth being very near aphelion (furthest away from the Sun in its elliptical orbit, making its angular diameter nearly as small as possible).
3. The midpoint of the eclipse being very close to Earth’s equator, where the rotational velocity is greatest and is closest to the speed of the lunar shadow moving over Earth’s surface.
4. The vector of the eclipse path at the midpoint of the eclipse aligning with the vector of Earth’s rotation (i.e. not diagonal but due east).
5. The midpoint of the eclipse being near the subsolar point (the part of Earth closest to the Sun).

The longest eclipse that has been calculated thus far is the eclipse of July 16, 2186 (with a maximum duration of 7 minutes 29 seconds over northern Guyana).^[35]

Occurrence and cycles

Main article: Eclipse cycle

A total solar eclipse is a rare event, recurring somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average,^[38] yet is estimated to recur at any given location only every 360–410 years on average.^[39] The total eclipse lasts for only a maximum of a few minutes at any location because the Moon’s umbra moves eastward at over 1700 km/h (1100 mph; 470 m/s; 1500 ft/s).^[40] Totality currently can never last more than 7 min 32 s. This value changes over the millennia and is currently decreasing. By the 8th millennium, the longest theoretically possible total eclipse will be less than 7 min 2 s.^[35] The last time an eclipse longer than 7 minutes occurred was June 30, 1973 (7 min 3 sec). Observers aboard a Concorde supersonic aircraft were able to stretch totality for this eclipse to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the Moon’s umbra.^[41] The next total eclipse exceeding seven minutes in duration will not occur until June 25, 2150. The longest total solar eclipse during the 11000 year period from 3000 BC to at least 8000 AD will occur on July 16, 2186, when totality will last 7 min 29 s.^[35][42] For comparison, the longest total eclipse of the 20th century at 7 min 8 s occurred on June 20, 1955, and there will be no total solar eclipses over 7 min in duration in the 21st century.^[43]

It is possible to predict other eclipses using eclipse cycles. The saros is probably the best known and one of the most accurate. A saros lasts 6585.3 days (a little over 18 years), which means that, after this period, a practically identical eclipse will occur. The most notable difference will be a westward shift of about 120° in longitude (due to the 0.3 days) and a little in latitude (north-south for odd-numbered cycles, the reverse for even-numbered ones). A saros series always starts with a partial eclipse near one of Earth’s polar regions, then shifts over the globe through a series of annular or total eclipses, and ends with a partial eclipse at the opposite polar region. A saros series lasts 1226 to 1550 years and 69 to 87 eclipses, with about 40 to 60 of them being central.^[44]

Frequency per year

Between two and five solar eclipses occur every year, with at least one per eclipse season. Since the Gregorian calendar was instituted in 1582, years that have had five solar eclipses were 1693, 1758, 1805, 1823, 1870, and 1935. The next occurrence will be 2206.^[45] On average, there are about 240 solar eclipses each century.^[46]

January 5	February 3	June 30	July 30	December 25
Partial (south)	Partial (north)	Partial (north)	Partial (south)	Annular (south)
Saros 111	Saros 149	Saros 116	Saros 154	Saros 121

Final totality

Total solar eclipses are seen on Earth because of a fortuitous combination of circumstances. Even on Earth, the diversity of eclipses familiar to people today is a temporary (on a geological time scale) phenomenon. Hundreds of millions of years in the past, the Moon was closer to Earth and therefore apparently larger, so every solar eclipse was total or partial, and there were no annular eclipses. Due to tidal acceleration, the orbit of the Moon around Earth becomes approximately 3.8 cm more distant each year. Millions of years in the future, the Moon will be too far away to fully occlude the Sun, and no total eclipses will occur. In the same timeframe, the Sun may become brighter, making it appear larger in size.^[47] Estimates of the time when the Moon will be unable to occlude the entire Sun when viewed from Earth range between 650 million^[48] and 1.4 billion years in the future.^[47]

Viewing

2017 total solar eclipse viewed in real time with audience reactions

Looking directly at the photosphere of the Sun (the bright disk of the Sun itself), even for just a few seconds, can cause permanent damage to the retina of the eye, because of the intense visible and invisible radiation that the photosphere emits. This damage can result in impairment of vision, up to and including blindness. The retina has no sensitivity to pain, and the effects of retinal damage may not appear for hours, so there is no warning that injury is occurring.^[49][50]

Under normal conditions, the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly. However, during an eclipse, with so much of the Sun covered, it is easier and more tempting to stare at it. Looking at the Sun during an eclipse is as dangerous as looking at it outside an eclipse, except during the brief period of totality, when the Sun’s disk is completely covered (totality occurs only during a total eclipse and only very briefly; it does not occur during a partial or annular eclipse). Viewing the Sun’s disk through any kind of optical aid (binoculars, a telescope, or even an optical camera viewfinder) is extremely hazardous and can cause irreversible eye damage within a fraction of a second.^[51][52]

Partial and annular eclipses

Eclipse glasses filter out eye damaging radiation, allowing direct viewing of the Sun during all partial eclipse phases; they are not used during totality, when the Sun is completely eclipsed

Pinhole projection method of observing partial solar eclipse. Insert (upper left): partially eclipsed Sun photographed with a white solar filter. Main image: projections of the partially eclipsed Sun (bottom right)

Viewing the Sun during partial and annular eclipses (and during total eclipses outside the brief period of totality) requires special eye protection, or indirect viewing methods if eye damage is to be avoided. The Sun’s disk can be viewed using appropriate filtration to block the harmful part of the Sun’s radiation. Sunglasses do not make viewing the Sun safe. Only properly designed and certified solar filters should be used for direct viewing of the Sun’s disk.^[53] Especially, self-made filters using common objects such as a floppy disk removed from its case, a Compact Disc, a black colour slide film, smoked glass, etc. must be avoided.^[54][55]

The safest way to view the Sun’s disk is by indirect projection.^[56] This can be done by projecting an image of the disk onto a white piece of paper or card using a pair of binoculars (with one of the lenses covered), a telescope, or another piece of cardboard with a small hole in it (about 1 mm diameter), often called a pinhole camera. The projected image of the Sun can then be safely viewed; this technique can be used to observe sunspots, as well as eclipses. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that no one looks through the projector (telescope, pinhole, etc.) directly.^[57] A kitchen colander with small holes can also be used to project multiple images of the partially eclipsed Sun onto the ground or a viewing screen. Viewing the Sun’s disk on a video display screen (provided by a video camera or digital camera) is safe, although the camera itself may be damaged by direct exposure to the Sun. The optical viewfinders provided with some video and digital cameras are not safe. Securely mounting #14 welder’s glass in front of the lens and viewfinder protects the equipment and makes viewing possible.^[55] Professional workmanship is essential because of the dire consequences any gaps or detaching mountings will have. In the partial eclipse path, one will not be able to see the corona or nearly complete darkening of the sky. However, depending on how much of the Sun’s disk is obscured, some darkening may be noticeable. If three-quarters or more of the Sun is obscured, then an effect can be observed by which the daylight appears to be dim, as if the sky were overcast, yet objects still cast sharp shadows.^[58]

Totality

Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017

Baily’s beads, sunlight visible through lunar valleys

Composite image with corona, prominences, and diamond ring effect

When the shrinking visible part of the photosphere becomes very small, Baily’s beads will occur. These are caused by the sunlight still being able to reach Earth through lunar valleys. Totality then begins with the diamond ring effect, the last bright flash of sunlight.^[59]

It is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse directly only when the Sun’s photosphere is completely covered by the Moon, and not before or after totality.^[56] During this period, the Sun is too dim to be seen through filters. The Sun’s faint corona will be visible, and the chromosphere, solar prominences, coronal streamers and possibly even a solar flare may be seen. At the end of totality, the same effects will occur in reverse order, and on the opposite side of the Moon.^[59]

Eclipse chasing

Main article: Eclipse chasing

A dedicated group of eclipse chasers have pursued the observation of solar eclipses when they occur around Earth.^[60] A person who chases eclipses is known as an umbraphile, meaning shadow lover.^[61] Umbraphiles travel for eclipses and use various tools to help view the sun including solar viewing glasses, also known as eclipse glasses, as well as telescopes.^[62][63]

Photography

The first known photograph of a solar eclipse was taken on July 28, 1851, by Johann Julius Friedrich Berkowski, using the daguerreotype process.^[64][65]

Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment. In order for the disk of the Sun/Moon to be easily visible, a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed (at least 200 mm for a 35 mm camera), and for the disk to fill most of the frame, a longer lens is needed (over 500 mm). As with viewing the Sun directly, looking at it through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina, so care is recommended.^[66] Solar filters are required for digital photography even if an optical viewfinder is not used. Using a camera’s live view feature or an electronic viewfinder is safe for the human eye, but the Sun’s rays could potentially irreparably damage digital image sensors unless the lens is covered by a properly designed solar filter.^[67]

Pinholes in shadows during no eclipse (1 & 4), a partial eclipse (2 & 5) and an annular eclipse (3 & 6)

Pinhole shadows during the Solar eclipse of April 8, 2024, as seen from Winder, Georgia.

Historical eclipses

Further information: Eclipses in mythology and culture and Lists of solar eclipses

Historical eclipses are a very valuable resource for historians, in that they allow a few historical events to be dated precisely, from which other dates and ancient calendars may be deduced.^[68] The oldest recorded solar eclipse was recorded on a clay tablet found at Ugarit, in modern Syria, with two plausible dates usually cited: 3 May 1375 BC or 5 March 1223 BC, the latter being favored by most recent authors on the topic.^[69][70] A solar eclipse of June 15, 763 BC mentioned in an Assyrian text is important for the chronology of the ancient Near East.^[71] There have been other claims to date earlier eclipses. The legendary Chinese king Zhong Kang supposedly beheaded two astronomers, Hsi and Ho, who failed to predict an eclipse 4000 years ago.^[72] Perhaps the earliest still-unproven claim is that of archaeologist Bruce Masse, who putatively links an eclipse that occurred on May 10, 2807, BC with a possible meteor impact in the Indian Ocean on the basis of several ancient flood myths that mention a total solar eclipse.^[73]

Eclipses have been interpreted as omens, or portents.^[74] The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Thales of Miletus predicted an eclipse that occurred during a battle between the Medes and the Lydians. Both sides put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse.^[75] The exact eclipse involved remains uncertain, although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and modern authorities. One likely candidate took place on May 28, 585 BC, probably near the Halys river in Asia Minor.^[76] An eclipse recorded by Herodotus before Xerxes departed for his expedition against Greece,^[77] which is traditionally dated to 480 BC, was matched by John Russell Hind to an annular eclipse of the Sun at Sardis on February 17, 478 BC.^[78] Alternatively, a partial eclipse was visible from Persia on October 2, 480 BC.^[79] Herodotus also reports a solar eclipse at Sparta during the Second Persian invasion of Greece.^[80] The date of the eclipse (August 1, 477 BC) does not match exactly the conventional dates for the invasion accepted by historians.^[81]

In ancient China, where solar eclipses were known as an “eating of the Sun” (rìshí 日食), the earliest records of eclipses date to around 720 BC.^[82] The 4th century BC astronomer Shi Shen described the prediction of eclipses by using the relative positions of the Moon and Sun.^[83]

Attempts have been made to establish the exact date of Good Friday by assuming that the darkness described at Jesus’s crucifixion was a solar eclipse. This research has not yielded conclusive results,^[84][85] and Good Friday is recorded as being at Passover, which is held at the time of a full moon. Further, the darkness lasted from the sixth hour to the ninth, or three hours, which is much, much longer than the eight-minute upper limit for any solar eclipse’s totality. Contemporary chronicles wrote about an eclipse at the beginning of May 664 that coincided with the beginning of the plague of 664 in the British isles.^[86] In the Western hemisphere, there are few reliable records of eclipses before AD 800, until the advent of Arab and monastic observations in the early medieval period.^[82]

A solar eclipse took place on January 27, 632 over Arabia during Muhammad‘s lifetime. Muhammad denied the eclipse had anything to do with his son dying earlier that day, saying “The sun and the moon do not eclipse because of the death of someone from the people but they are two signs amongst the signs of God.”^[87] The Cairo astronomer Ibn Yunus wrote that the calculation of eclipses was one of the many things that connect astronomy with the Islamic law, because it allowed knowing when a special prayer can be made.^[88] The first recorded observation of the corona was made in Constantinople in AD 968.^[79][82]

The first known telescopic observation of a total solar eclipse was made in France in 1706.^[82] Nine years later, English astronomer Edmund Halley accurately predicted and observed the solar eclipse of May 3, 1715.^[79][82] By the mid-19th century, scientific understanding of the Sun was improving through observations of the Sun’s corona during solar eclipses. The corona was identified as part of the Sun’s atmosphere in 1842, and the first photograph (or daguerreotype) of a total eclipse was taken of the solar eclipse of July 28, 1851.^[79] Spectroscope observations were made of the solar eclipse of August 18, 1868, which helped to determine the chemical composition of the Sun.^[79]

John Fiske summed up myths about the solar eclipse like this in his 1872 book Myth and Myth-Makers,

the myth of Hercules and Cacus, the fundamental idea is the victory of the solar god over the robber who steals the light. Now whether the robber carries off the light in the evening when Indra has gone to sleep, or boldly rears his black form against the sky during the daytime, causing darkness to spread over the earth, would make little difference to the framers of the myth. To a chicken a solar eclipse is the same thing as nightfall, and he goes to roost accordingly. Why, then, should the primitive thinker have made a distinction between the darkening of the sky caused by black clouds and that caused by the rotation of the earth? He had no more conception of the scientific explanation of these phenomena than the chicken has of the scientific explanation of an eclipse. For him it was enough to know that the solar radiance was stolen, in the one case as in the other, and to suspect that the same demon was to blame for both robberies.^[89]

Particular observations, phenomena and impact

A total solar eclipse provides a rare opportunity to observe the corona (the outer layer of the Sun’s atmosphere). Normally this is not visible because the photosphere is much brighter than the corona. According to the point reached in the solar cycle, the corona may appear small and symmetric, or large and fuzzy. It is very hard to predict this in advance.^[90]

Phenomena associated with eclipses include shadow bands (also known as flying shadows), which are similar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool. They occur only just prior to and after totality, when a narrow solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source.^[91] As the light filters through leaves of trees during a partial eclipse, the overlapping leaves create natural pinholes, displaying mini eclipses on the ground.^[92]

1919 observations

See also: Tests of general relativity § Deflection of light by the Sun

The observation of a total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, helped to confirm Einstein‘s theory of general relativity. By comparing the apparent distance between stars in the constellation Taurus, with and without the Sun between them, Arthur Eddington stated that the theoretical predictions about gravitational lenses were confirmed.^[93] The observation with the Sun between the stars was possible only during totality since the stars are then visible. Though Eddington’s observations were near the experimental limits of accuracy at the time, work in the later half of the 20th century confirmed his results.^[94][95]

Gravity anomalies

There is a long history of observations of gravity-related phenomena during solar eclipses, especially during the period of totality. Maurice Allais reported observing unusual and unexplained movements during solar eclipses in both 1954 and 1959.^[96] The reality of this phenomenon, named the Allais effect, has remained controversial. Similarly, in 1970, Saxl and Allen observed the sudden change in motion of a torsion pendulum; this phenomenon is called the Saxl effect.^[97]

Observation during the 1997 solar eclipse by Wang et al. suggested a possible gravitational shielding effect,^[98] which generated debate. In 2002, Wang and a collaborator published detailed data analysis, which suggested that the phenomenon still remains unexplained.^[99]

Eclipses and transits

In principle, the simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible. But these events are extremely rare because of their short durations. The next anticipated simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of Mercury will be on July 5, 6757, and a solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is expected on April 5, 15232.^[100]

More common, but still infrequent, is a conjunction of a planet (especially, but not only, Mercury or Venus) at the time of a total solar eclipse, in which event the planet will be visible very near the eclipsed Sun, when without the eclipse it would have been lost in the Sun’s glare. At one time, some scientists hypothesized that there may be a planet (often given the name Vulcan) even closer to the Sun than Mercury; the only way to confirm its existence would have been to observe it in transit or during a total solar eclipse. No such planet was ever found, and general relativity has since explained the observations that led astronomers to suggest that Vulcan might exist.^[101]

Artificial satellites

Artificial satellites can also pass in front of the Sun as seen from Earth, but none is large enough to cause an eclipse. At the altitude of the International Space Station, for example, an object would need to be about 3.35 km (2.08 mi) across to blot the Sun out entirely. These transits are difficult to watch because the zone of visibility is very small. The satellite passes over the face of the Sun in about a second, typically. As with a transit of a planet, it will not get dark.^[102]

Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or artificial satellites orbiting above Earth’s atmosphere are not subject to weather conditions. The crew of Gemini 12 observed a total solar eclipse from space in 1966.^[103] The partial phase of the 1999 total eclipse was visible from Mir.^[104]

Impact

The solar eclipse of March 20, 2015, was the first occurrence of an eclipse estimated to potentially have a significant impact on the power system, with the electricity sector taking measures to mitigate any impact. The continental Europe and Great Britain synchronous areas were estimated to have about 90 gigawatts of solar power and it was estimated that production would temporarily decrease by up to 34 GW compared to a clear sky day.^[105][106]

Eclipses may cause the temperature to decrease by 3 °C (5 °F), with wind power potentially decreasing as winds are reduced by 0.7 meters (2.3 ft) per second.^[107]

In addition to the drop in light level and air temperature, animals change their behavior during totality. For example, birds and squirrels return to their nests and crickets chirp.^[108]

Recent and forthcoming solar eclipses

Main article: List of solar eclipses in the 21st century

Further information: Lists of solar eclipses

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Eclipses occur only in the eclipse season, when the Sun is close to either the ascending or descending node of the Moon. Each eclipse is separated by one, five or six lunations (synodic months), and the midpoint of each season is separated by 173.3 days, which is the mean time for the Sun to travel from one node to the next. The period is a little less than half a calendar year because the lunar nodes slowly regress. Because 223 synodic months is roughly equal to 239 anomalistic months and 242 draconic months, eclipses with similar geometry recur 223 synodic months (about 6,585.3 days) apart. This period (18 years 11.3 days) is a saros. Because 223 synodic months is not identical to 239 anomalistic months or 242 draconic months, saros cycles do not endlessly repeat. Each cycle begins with the Moon’s shadow crossing Earth near the north or south pole, and subsequent events progress toward the other pole until the Moon’s shadow misses Earth and the series ends.^[28] Saros cycles are numbered; currently, cycles 117 to 156 are active.^{[citation needed]}

2018–2021

Solar eclipse series sets from 2018 to 2021
Ascending node				Descending node
Saros	Map	Gamma		Saros	Map	Gamma
117 Partial in Melbourne, Australia	July 13, 2018 Partial	−1.35423		122 Partial in Nakhodka, Russia	January 6, 2019 Partial	1.14174
127 Totality in La Serena, Chile	July 2, 2019 Total	−0.64656		132 Annularity in Jaffna, Sri Lanka	December 26, 2019 Annular	0.41351
137 Annularity in Beigang, Yunlin, Taiwan	June 21, 2020 Annular	0.12090		142 Totality in Gorbea, Chile	December 14, 2020 Total	−0.29394
147 Partial in Halifax, Canada	June 10, 2021 Annular	0.91516		152 From HMS Protector off South Georgia	December 4, 2021 Total	−0.95261

2022–2025

Solar eclipse series sets from 2022 to 2025
Ascending node				Descending node
Saros	Map	Gamma		Saros	Map	Gamma
119 Partial in CTIO, Chile	April 30, 2022 Partial	−1.19008		124 Partial from Saratov, Russia	October 25, 2022 Partial	1.07014
129 Partial in Magetan, Indonesia	April 20, 2023 Hybrid	−0.39515		134 Annularity in Hobbs, NM, USA	October 14, 2023 Annular	0.37534
139 Totality in Dallas, TX, USA	April 8, 2024 Total	0.34314		144 Annularity in Santa Cruz Province, Argentina	October 2, 2024 Annular	−0.35087
149	March 29, 2025 Partial	1.04053		154	September 21, 2025 Partial	−1.06509

2026–2029

Solar eclipse series sets from 2026 to 2029
Ascending node				Descending node
Saros	Map	Gamma		Saros	Map	Gamma
121	February 17, 2026 Annular	−0.97427		126	August 12, 2026 Total	0.89774
131	February 6, 2027 Annular	−0.29515		136	August 2, 2027 Total	0.14209
141	January 26, 2028 Annular	0.39014		146	July 22, 2028 Total	−0.60557
151	January 14, 2029 Partial	1.05532		156	July 11, 2029 Partial	−1.41908